Application Of Real Time PCR In Forensic Science

Question: Write an essay on Application of Real Time PCR in Forensic Science? Answer: Forensic science is the study of evidences through different scientific methodology in order to identify the criminal or the process of the crime and food analysis (Reischcl, Witter, Coceril, 2012). Polymerase Chain Reaction is used for amplification of a single DNA fragment into multiple DNA copies (Dietmaier, Witter and Sivasubramanian, 2013). Real time PCR technique is the polymerase chain reaction method the monitoring of the whole reaction process is done in the real time format (Giampaoli et al, 2012). Criminal acts such as murder, rape, sexual assaults are testified through different methods of forensic science. DNA profiling which includes techniques such as DNA typing, DNA testing and DNA fingerprinting is one of the most used techniques used by forensic scientists (Caniglia et al, 2010). To carry out such techniques, PCR is used as a tool. Nowadays, Real Time PCR is used for more specific identification of the evidences (Johnson, Wilson-Wilde and Linacre, 2014). The real-ti me fluorescence based quantitative PCR is one of the significant benchmark technology used in forensic science application. Another aspect where PCR is used based on mitochondrial genes is used for its matrilineal inheritance (McLaughlin, Doty and Lednav, 2014). As discussed in a research paper by Sinha and his coworkers, Retro transposable elements which is comprised of two regions known as LINEs (Long interspersed nuclear element) and SINEs (short interspersed nuclear element) can be used as marker for human identification and bio-ancestry testing. As Retro transposable elements does not cause shutter artifacts due to slippage at the time of PCR, the interpretation of the result becomes much easier (Sinha et al, 2015). In another research paper by Dawnay and his colleagues carried out real time PCR using HyBeacon probe technology which enabled them species detection. They used this method for rapid onsite non-human forensic testing. In cases of illegal animal killing, species identification is one of the major issues. In this method they have used a single HyBeacon probe and melt curve analysis for rapid screening. Melt curve detection process helps to detect species specific SNP sites present on the COI genes. This helps the forensic scientists to specifically identify a particular species of animal from unknown DNA sample (Dawnay, et al, 2016). Aims and Objectives The aim of the research carried out by Sudhir Sinha and his coworkers was to develop a novel and sensitive DNA marker which can be applied in forensic science for the identification of human DNA with an unknown DNA sample (Sinha et al, 2015). The aim of the research carried out by Nick Dawnay and his coworkers is to develop a technique which can be used for non-expert genetic species identification among different species. Another aspect of the aim was to design the application of this method for on-human forensic authentication (Dawnay, et al, 2016). Methodology In order to achieve the mentioned aim, Sinha and his colleague used novel primer design methodology. In this method they have used real time PCR technique for the novel primer design. Methylene specific polymerase chain reaction or MSP is used. MSP method removed the intra-spacing between the locus competition, which are found in case of heterozygote DNA. The samples were analyzed by Hardy-Weinberg expectation to demonstrate the linkage and disequilibrium between the sequences. Using a capillary electrophoresis technique the allelic nature of the alu typing system was also carried out. After that, the splicing reduces the amplicon size of loci region and in two allelic states of INNULs. In the second part they used real time qPCR. qPCR is used for the development of quantitative and qualitative assay. In case of development of PCR technique using HyBeacon probe technology. At first Nick and his colleagues used the Sample authentication-DNA sequencing. They extracted DNA samples from 42 different fish species. After that thee HyBeacon assay design was done. They downloaded the sequence data of Atlantic cod from BO LD and NCBI. Databas2.0 It is seen that Hybeaconprobes are generally 20 to 30 base pair long having short COI homology regions . The process also included pautive species specific SNP sites. Using this this technology they carried out the identification of key target species using Mega 6.0. After this multiple sequences were aligned using Clustal. After the design was done, they Develop the HyBeacon assay. This is the most crucial part, as the result of the entire research was dependent on this method. For the development of the specific cod assay, data was gathered from the genomic DNA. They categorized the experiment sensitivity and specificity studies were made. Result Sinha and his co workers observed that Retro transposable elements are in generally novel markers. They have a property of high copy number. They can be used for the most reproducible and sensitive DNA quantification. In the result Sinha observed that, Innotyper*21 amplification of A DNA sample collected from 2cm long rootless hair shaft. The result collected showed that there was a significant amount of DNA degradation and low level quantity was found. The sample which was yielded had the characteristics of a full genotype consistent with the buccal swab sample from the donor. As a result the Innotyper Retro transposable elements can be combined with ancestry informative ALU RE markers. These combination can be made small samples as less than 100 base pair. As a result the forensic samples will provide additional information. The detection of an ancestry gene within the sub-continental and continental population will diversify to detect human population in different forensic cases. The other major aspect of this method is that it can detect sample in highly degrade and low level conditions as well. The development aspect of small amplicon and the multiplex primer kit will help the scientists to prepare next generation sequencing libraries as well. These libraries will also help in forensic and bio-ancestral identification from unknown DNA sample. Nick and his coworkers found in their research that the detection capability of this process was about 7.5 pg of DNA. This is a high sensitivity detection phenomenon as compared to other c0onventional methods (De Bruyne et al, 2011). The result obtained showed that none of the non-target species in the tests showed repeated amplification or melt curve detection in the same regions (Winder et al, 2011). One of the reasons behind this finding is the lack of homology found in the primers and the test specimen (Filonzi et al, 2010). A diagnostic peak of Haddock was amplified to produce a melt peak. The result collected showed that Tm was 45 degrees Celsius and it was not miscalled. ANOVA analysis showed that there was no significant difference between the delta RFU for each melt curve. The results seen in ParaDNA software measured all three melt targets. As a result, it can be said the, using this technique more than one species can be detected in one sample at the same time. The ability of detecting numerous different species composition in a single sample may allow identification of separate form of the species (Cawthorn, Steinman and Witthuhn, 2012). Another aspect of this method is that it can be used to identify different sort of animal species in food departments as well. Impact of the Research Application of these two techniques will allow a whole net domain in forensic sciences (Nielsen et al, 2012). Using detection technique through the retro transposable elements will allow a diverse detection method. Population or a single individual can be identified with the help of low amount of samples such as body fluids, blood, hair or other DNA extractable samples. In case of forensic application, criminals can be easily identified and brought to justice. In many cases, forensic cannot detect DNA samples as the sample is of low amount or in degrading condition (Hennessy et al, 2014). This technique will allow the scientists to test sample which are not in good condition. In other hand, the technique of HyBeacon will allow the forensic scientist to test samples in illegal animal poacher or other assault (Grubaugh et al, 2013). The most important aspect of this method is that, more than one species can be detected through the analysis of one single sample (Dawnay et al, 2014). Thi s increases the sphere of detection, the method is also very much time consuming and easy to develop (Ball et al, 2015). This technology is ideal for non-expert users as well. As the method is very much easier to adopt and there is no use of hazardous element, the set up for such experiments can be established in current laboratories as well. Traditional detection methods often take a numerous number of days, but in this method, the results will be collected very much sooner. It can be concluded from the analysis of these two method that if these techniques are used in current forensic studies, the identification sphere will increase as well as it will increase the specificity of the identification (Tamura et al, 2013). References Ball, G., Dawnay, N., Stafford-Allen, B., Panasiuk, M., Rendell, P., Blackman, S., Duxbury, N. and Wells, S., 2015. Concordance study between the ParaDNA Intelligence Test, a Rapid DNA profiling assay, and a conventional STR typing kit (AmpFlSTR SGM Plus).Forensic Science International: Genetics,16, pp.48-51. Caniglia, R., Fabbri, E., Greco, C., Galaverni, M. and Randi, E., 2010. Forensic DNA against wildlife poaching: identification of a serial wolf killing in Italy.Forensic Science International: Genetics,4(5), pp.334-338. Cawthorn, D., Steinman, H.A. and Witthuhn, R.C., 2012. DNA barcoding reveals a high incidence of fish misrepresentation and substitution on the South African market. Dawnay, N., Hughes, R., Court, D.S. and Duxbury, N., 2016. Species detection using HyBeacon probe technology: Working towards rapid onsite testing in non-human forensic and food authentication applications.Forensic Science International: Genetics,20, pp.103-111. Dawnay, N., Stafford-Allen, B., Moore, D., Blackman, S., Rendell, P., Hanson, E.K., Ballantyne, J., Kallifatidis, B., Mendel, J., Mills, D.K. and Nagy, R., 2014. Developmental Validation of the ParaDNA Screening System-A presumptive test for the detection of DNA on forensic evidence items.Forensic Science International: Genetics,11, pp.73-79. De Bruyne, K., Slabbinck, B., Waegeman, W., Vauterin, P., De Baets, B. and Vandamme, P., 2011. Bacterial species identification from MALDI-TOF mass spectra through data analysis and machine learning.Systematic and applied microbiology,34(1), pp.20-29. Dietmaier, W., Wittwer, C. and Sivasubramanian, N. eds., 2013.Rapid Cycle Real-Time PCRMethods and Applications: Genetics and Oncology. Springer Science Business Media. Filonzi, L., Chiesa, S., Vaghi, M. and Marzano, F.N., 2010. Molecular barcoding reveals mislabelling of commercial fish products in Italy.Food Research International,43(5), pp.1383-1388. Giampaoli, S., Berti, A., Valeriani, F., Gianfranceschi, G., Piccolella, A., Buggiotti, L., Rapone, C., Valentini, A., Ripani, L. and Spica, V.R., 2012. Molecular identification of vaginal fluid by microbial signature.Forensic Science International: Genetics,6(5), pp.559-564. Grubaugh, N.D., Petz, L.N., Melanson, V.R., McMenamy, S.S., Turell, M.J., Long, L.S., Pisarcik, S.E., Kengluecha, A., Jaichapor, B., O'Guinn, M.L. and Lee, J.S., 2013. Evaluation of a field-portable DNA microarray platform and nucleic acid amplification strategies for the detection of arboviruses, arthropods, and bloodmeals.The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene,88(2), pp.245-253. Hennessy, L.K., Mehendale, N., Chear, K., Jovanovich, S., Williams, S., Park, C. and Gangano, S., 2014. Developmental validation of the GlobalFiler express kit, a 24-marker STR assay, on the RapidHIT System.Forensic Science International: Genetics,13, pp.247-258. Johnson, R.N., Wilson-Wilde, L. and Linacre, A., 2014. Current and future directions of DNA in wildlife forensic science.Forensic Science International: Genetics,10, pp.1-11. McLaughlin, G., Doty, K.C. and Lednev, I.K., 2014. Discrimination of human and animal blood traces via Raman spectroscopy.Forensic science international,238, pp.91-95. Nielsen, E.E., Cariani, A., Mac Aoidh, E., Maes, G.E., Milano, I., Ogden, R., Taylor, M., Hemmer-Hansen, J., Babbucci, M., Bargelloni, L. and Bekkevold, D., 2012. Gene-associated markers provide tools for tackling illegal fishing and false eco-certification.Nature Communications,3, p.851. Reischl, U., Wittwer, C. and Cockerill, F. eds., 2012.Rapid Cycle Real-Time PCRMethods and Applications: Microbiology and Food Analysis. Springer Science Business Media. Sinha, S., Murphy, G., Brown, H., Montgomery, A., Carrol, M. and Tabak, J., 2015. Retrotransposable elements: Novel and sensitive DNA markers and their application in human identity.Forensic Science International: Genetics Supplement Series,5, pp.e627-e629. Tamura, K., Stecher, G., Peterson, D., Filipski, A. and Kumar, S., 2013. MEGA6: molecular evolutionary genetics analysis version 6.0.Molecular biology and evolution,30(12), pp.2725-2729. Winder, L., Phillips, C., Richards, N., Ochoa Corona, F., Hardwick, S., Vink, C.J. and Goldson, S., 2011. Evaluation of DNA melting analysis as a tool for species identification.Methods in Ecology and Evolution,2(3), pp.312-320.

Ghetto Essays - Jewish Ghettos In German-occupied Poland

Ghetto By: It is widely known what went on between the Jews and the Germans during World War II. Millions upon millions of Jews were killed because of Hitler's hatred, Hitler's tyranny, and Hitler's fury. While many people today still cringe at the thought of life in concentration camps, many are not aware of the harsh reality that existed in the Jewish ghettos. The word "ghetto" is not only the scariest place in America but also a word used to refer to a Jewish community. These ghettos or communities were the holding areas of many, many Jews who were forced to perform slave labor for the Germans during the war instead of going to concentration camps. In Germany, during the early stages of the war, more and more occupations were closed to Jews, and the free professions were totally banned to them. However, during the drafting of a general law designed to totally displace the Jews from their positions in the economy, it became evident to the Germans that the problem could not be solved without simultaneously clearing the way for increased emigration. If the Germans dispossessed them, they would no longer be a burden on the German economy. In June of 1938, a man named Martin Bormann, acting on behalf of the fuhrer's deputy, Rudolf Hess, sent German party activists a secret directive about "the removal of Jews from the economy." In a Nazi meeting held on October 14, 1938, a man named Herman Goring, who was second in power only to Chancellor Adolf Hitler, declared that "Aryanization (making the world one Aryan race) was the state's, and only the state's concern," adding that he was not prepared to allocate foreign currency to dispose of the Jews. He also added the remark that "if the need arises we will have to establish ghettos in the big cities," and so it seems the stage was set as this was the first time mention was made of the plan to set up Jewish work brigades. Originally, the ghettos were not supposed to be permanent institutions, but used as temporary concentration camps until it was possible to find the ultimate solution to the problem of disposing of al the Jews. The first known instance of establishment of a ghetto was in December of 1939 in a town called Leczyca in Poland when the Germans attempted to segregate the Jewish population from the Poles. A prominent example of the way in which large communities were depopulated was the fate of Kalisz, one of the oldest Jewish communities in Poland with a population of twenty thousand at the outbreak of the war. Both Germans and Poles joined in the brutal attacks against the Jews. The Jews had no chance. Many Jews fled, some seven thousand reaching Warsaw. The healthy men remaining in Kalisz were sent to work in the camp, while the ailing were slaughtered in a nearby forest. By October of 1940, only a few hundred Jews were left in the city. The first ghetto to be established in a systematic fashion was the Lodz ghetto. Governor of the Kalisz-Lodz District, Friedrich Ubelhor, had planned the idea for a ghetto in Lodz since December 10, 1939. Ubelhor proposed two things. The first was to close off most of the Jewish population in the northern part of the city, where most of the Jews lived, and to transfer the Jews from other parts of the Lodz area to this area. The second was to select those fit to labor and concentrate them in another ghetto, actually a labor camp, where they would be organized into labor battalions. The first step in setting up Ubelhor's labor camp was to first fix the borders of the ghetto and work out the problems of transport through the streets .The Germans and Poles also had to find new homes to be resettled in. Other factors that played a part were sealing and guarding the ghetto, provisions for medical care, sewage, refuse removal, burials, and fuel necessary for heating. The basis for establishing the ghetto in Lodz focused primarily on three spheres: (1) the deportation of as many Jews as possible, with preference given to the wealthy, the educated, and community leadership, if they had not managed to flee by then; (2) the confiscation of property on as broad a scale as possible; and (3) terrifying the Jews by harassment, depriving the population of food, and abducting people for labor. Once the ghetto was completed and all the Jews had been confined, a Jewish body for self-administration

WK 4 Essays

WK 4 Essays WK 4 Essay WK 4 Essay Question 1: Reliability pertains to the consistency of the measurement i.e. to have the same results each time under same conditions and same subjects under consideration. As reliability can not be calculated exactly each time so we estimate reliability. One type of this estimated reliability is Test-Retest Reliability i.e. to check to what extent a test will produce same result over a period or time. For example to test the â€Å"relationship between good neighborliness on health among Afro-American community of some selected New York ghettos† will be tested thrice over a period of over 2 years. Same measures will be emulated and administered thrice. The subjects and other correlative and variables will remain same and only hypotheses will tested again and again to check the reliability of the results. Reliability of measurements leads to the validity of the result i.e. strength of the conclusion(s). A test-pre-test reliability leads to Concurrent Validity i.e. a time-honored result of conclusion established after tests yielded same results each time. For example a clear relationship between good neighborliness and health is established with an adequate consistency level of .80 or greater. This .80 or greater level checked thrice lends validity to the conclusion. Question 2: Ethical Concern A: Human subjects under consideration must be informed of the experiment and must not be coerced to participate. This can lead to slight decrease in the reliability of the experiment and validity of the result to some extent as sampling will not remain same each time. If the quit level is too high then it can affect the reliability of the measurement too drastically. One way to address this ethical concern is that those subjects should be included in the sampling that could be willingly available next two times for test-retest. They should not have any relocation or any other objection on the experimentation during those two years. Ethical Concern B: Covert overt Research is another concern Research participants may change their behavior and modify their responses when they know that they are involved in experimentation. One way to overcome this concern is that participants should be informed of their participation in experimentation but must not be share the objectives and patterns of the research. Participant observation methods should be used for this purpose. Question 3: 1. Validity of the data collection instrument is in question as source of data in these articles is highly unreliable and it is not defined in concrete terms and no specifications are provided for this source of data. Source of data is Senator Clinton supporters in west Virginia but it is not clear whether this sampling represent whole west Virginia or a city. 2.  Opinion polls do follow the criterion for data collection as outlined for sociological research.   There source and sampling is not adequate enough to meet the necessities of sociological research. Mostly their sources are too wide and generic as they capture wider audience and groups. Their hypotheses are not properly formed and variable are not properly controlled. 3.  Reliability and validity can be checked to some extent. If readers are provided with the details of the instrument(s) utilized to collect the data. 4. Results presented by media reports and opinion polls do not undergo the reliability and validity tests. There is no test-pretest procedure over a period of time to lend concurrent validity to the conclusion. Furthermore, their results are molded by subjectivity i.e. personal biases and prejudices.

Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 39

Assignment Example Due to limited resources accompanied by the constraint on the same, there is demand for choice hence opportunity cost in economics. In the cases presented, allocation of a square block in the heart of Toronto for a parking lot poses the greatest opportunity cost due to the demand for packing space in the city. 3. The cost of production is $(5*40+7*60+2*60+1*20) = $760. Selling price is $(400*2) = $800. The firm can therefore continue producing bread because a margin of $40 will result. The flow of factors of production to the bakery is good since it will enhance technical efficiency and effectiveness. 4. If supply decreases and demand is constant, prices will rise and quantity reduces. With lower demand and constant supply, prices fall and quantities go up. Increase in supply with constant demand leads to reduced prices by the margin of increase while quantities will flood the market. Depending on the increase in demand and supply, there will be an increase with the same proportions. If demand increases and supply remains the same, there is a constraint created hence prices go up while quantity diminishes. Increase in supply accompanied with reduced demand leads to excess goods in the market hence lowered prices with excess goods in the market. If demand increases and supply decreases, prices will drastically escalate with steep decrease in quantity. If supply decreases alongside demand, prices and quantity would follow in the same proportion (Adil & Janeen 2006pg.57). 5. If price falls and demand is inelastic revenue falls since quantity is constant. Price rise with elastic supply leads to increase in revenue with the same proportion. While in a case, when supply is inelastic, rise in prices also increases revenue (Adil & Janeen 2006pg.194). 6. Price ceilings involve the setting of prices by governments below the equilibrium price to favor the consumers while reducing supplier’s profits. Price floors involve a

Effects of Administrative Corruption in the Public Sector Essay

Effects of Administrative Corruption in the Public Sector - Essay Example Data will be analyzed with the help of statistical software to ensure the validity of the information collected. The study is intended to be spread over a duration of no more than three months. According to Rabl & Kuhlmann (2008), corruption refers to deviant behavior that could occur in the politics, society, the economy, or within an organization, for the benefit of an individual or an institution. Such acts of corruption are kept in secret and are damaging to all the individuals involved, particularly to people who have contributed funds and have been cheated on. It has been found to have wide-ranging and profound effects and research studies have actually found a relationship between corruption and private investment as well as growth. There is also a connection between corruption and currency rises and capital flows, higher income inequality, poverty, inflation, inferior resource allocation, distorted expenditures by the government, thereby all lowering standards of public life (Faria 2001). The researcher aims to find out the problems that are the result of corruption that has not yet been explored. For this study, the researcher shall focus on the public sector, since corruption done in the public sector is more detrimental towards the well-being of the global society. According to the Law Commission in its Consultation Paper on Corruption, public bodies are more prone to corruption as compared to private bodies (Law Commission 1997). The public sector plays a vital role in the economic development of a country.  

Three Factors That Form Individual Ethics Philosophy Essay

Three Factors That Form Individual Ethics Philosophy Essay Ethics is the division of study commerce with suitable course of an achievement for man. It is the study of correct and wrong in individual endeavours. At a more primary level, it is the process where we categorize our values and practise them. Ethics in the field of philosophy means that the revise and assessment of human behaviour in the glow of moral theories. Moral theories might be observed additionally as the model of behaviour that human beings have built for themselves or as the remains of responsibilities and functions that a demanding society needs of its associates. Ethics can also be generally be defined as the principles of morally acceptable conduct of individuals. Ethics also means an individuals personal beliefs about right and wrong behaviours. Ethics is a must for human life. It is our indications of making our mind up a course of action. Without it, our battles would be haphazard and pointless. There can be no technique to work in the direction of an objective as there would be no method to choose between a never ending numbers of objectives. Yet with an ethical model, we might be not capable to practise our goals with the prospect of success. To the quantity which a realistic ethical model is taken, we are proficient to perfectly classify our goals and battles to accomplish our most imperative values. Any mistake in our ethics will ease our ability to be successful in our endeavours. A suitable base of ethics needs a standard of significance to which all objectives and battles can be balanced to. This model is our own lives, and the pleasure which makes them liveable. This is our vital model of importance, where the goal in which an ethical man must aim at all times. It is turn up at by an assessment of mans nature, and identify his strange needs. A structure of ethics must additionally consist of not only emergency circumstances, but the usual choices we make continuously. It must consist of our relations to others, and identify their importance not only to our physical endurance, but to our interests and happiness. Furthermore, ethics is also known as private set of values used by a person to direct their actions, and to be aware with any responsibility.   Ethics are not intention, but are slanted to the individual.   Ethics are a constantly developing policy of behaviour charge upon situations and the life practices of the individual. According to Mary, 1956, ethics are the relative to our observation of authenticity, and are also based in the lead of a detailed viewpoint. We  as human beings, the moral command are classified by the individuals.   It has been started when the children are being skilled with suitable behaviours based on common norms and parental significances.   These norms and values are being used to grant a structure for the progression of the individual values. Therefore, there has no perceptions can seek to define ethics.   It is not viable for any one of the persons to claim total common awareness and subjectivity.   In addition, human beings are not all-powerful and dependable.   Some of them may go all-out for the excellence, but our very humanness will certify that accomplishment is not attained. Meanwhile, it is agreed that ethics are the persons set of values, whereby they must not be used to create broad assertions of true or false without tolerate for disagreement and the argument.   Ethics have to be used to help each of the human beings to identify our own life so that we live as stated to the top forms that we, as individuals, advised to.   Ethics and loyalty to our standards are the guiding principle which we use to review our battles.   It is an appearance of self-measurement of development or of obligation to the perfects which we struggle towards. The factors in our usual life may give good reason for some action, or take the edge off its harshness; we are still dependable for our choices.   Choices need to be investigated before an enlightened choice is being made. Ethics need to be understood usually at times of predicament or an internalized modification.   This happens because a belief is been shown to be incorrect or when the certainty fails to take into reflection a very specific set of situations.   At those times, the entity should realistically view on their certainty, and make an internal inquiry as to the knowledge which had been produced by them.   Considerations are needed to verify if theres a new set of values is required, or if active values need only been modified to reflect those situation. Ethics must not be used to ditch one set of narrow faiths adjacent to another.   The split created by such traditions becomes one of severe obedience to a set of precise values, and teaches prejudice for variations in another set of significances. Ethics must not be followed sightless nor should share morals which can be spoken out the ethical norms for all those individuals. In example, where this has been happened, the loads have roller blindly followed like sheep, following the firm point of views of a selected numbers.   Ethics must not interrupt in the lead of the private lives of any other individuals who is not hurting anyone. Norms First factor that forms individual ethics is norms. Norms are a useful guideline for the social behaviour. It has to be made active before they can point the behaviour when the persons are in a situation of deindividuation. They only see themselves in the name of group individuality, and their behaviours are probable to be guided by group norms alone. Norm of social reciprocity expresses us to return to other services, good qualities and kindness they offer us. The door in the face technique is used in norms as thats not all technique, and in advertising the peak of the line. Norm of social commitments also expresses us to maintain with our promises as this norm is being used in the low-ball technique. In addition, norm of obedience directs us in the direction of submission to the abilities. Milgram explain this agreement in his studies where contributors had to deliver frights to suffering victims. It is also has the possibility to resist being influenced by norms. People who display their reactance by fighting against the fear to their liberty of action when they find norms were out of place. The attitudes and norms normally work simultaneously to manipulate behaviour either directly or indirectly. As stated in the theory of planned behaviour, purposes are the function of three factors which is manners about behaviour, common norms applicable to the behaviour and awareness of organized over the behaviour. Therefore, when the thoughts and norms disagree, their pressure on behaviour will depend on their relative convenience. There are 3 personal experience examples of norms as stated below: Thank you is an example of norms. This is expected when we as human being express appreciation for helpful, supportive and kind manners. We express sympathy by saying sorry to hear this when we hear about another individuals difficulty in any situation. Failing to express sympathy, might result in the view that the person is thoughtless. In our daily life, we should help the people who had helped us. You wish to take annual leave to attend relatives wedding and you suppose to work on the day. You asked your colleague to cover for you. And you may be expected to agree similar request from your colleague in future. Belief Belief is defined as the mental mind-set that some intentions are true. In most of the given intention, most of the individual either has or be short of the mental attitude that it is true. Therefore, there is none of any central point ground between the occurrences of nonappearance of a belief. For an example, in the case of gods, most of the individuals either have the belief that at least one god in a number of sorts is real or they lack any such belief. In addition, belief is different from judgment, which is a mental act that involves arriving at an ending about an intention and consequently creating a belief among the individuals. Whereby, belief is the mental thoughts that some intention is correct rather than wrong. Decision after believing in something is the evaluation of an intention as realistic, fair, confusing and etc. It is because one type of character is not necessary for a belief to be continuously and intentionally parented. A belief that thought a god exists often depends on a few other beliefs which some individuals have not intentionally considered. There are a few examples below based on my personal experience: There were a few situations where I pray to God for something good to happen and it eventually happened and I gained success through that. I started doing this after seeing my parents doing so. It has become a belief for me as I see what ever my parents pray for, will somehow come to reality one day. The same thing started happening to me. Since that my belief on God has become stronger. This clearly shows that a belief is a mental thought for some intentions to be correct. The other example which I can give for belief is in the method of rising up children. I grew up with the care and guidance of my parents. When I was young, I have already started believing that I would be a successful man in future just like my parents because I believed that they would put me in correct path of life for me to gain success. I followed the exact path and I gained success just like how I thought and believed that it would happen one day. I believed my life path showed by my parents and here where I am today with good job and education. My belief has lead to a realistic in my life. Values Values can be defined as the foundation of beliefs of the persons which guide and encourage their attitudes and also actions. A few of the most essential ethical values are truthfulness, commitment, integrity and equality. Bear in mind that not all are ethical or moral values. Therefore, a number of non-ethical values which are considered to be the ethical impartial since they are neither principled nor not principled whereby it inspires behaviour are wealth, status, happiness, attractiveness, taste, comfort and success. These are ethic impartial because there is nothing right with these principles in and of themselves, but how one attains these and what one carries out with these can be right or wrong. Principle values are believed to always take priority over non-ethical morals. Individual moral values are significant in determining principled behaviour, but it is not concentrate on important theoretical ethics predominantly when there is a variation between our individual moral po int and our responsibilities to the patient. As for me, many beliefs have changed to values. For instance being caring towards others has become a value because I believed that if I care for a person, I will be cared in return. This statement was brought by my parents where they will keep reminding me to be caring to people around us. This principle or quality that we hold guide the way we live our lives and also decisions we make. It is really worthy to make this belief a value in our life as we build good behaviour in ourselves by being caring and helpful towards people. This actually is inherited and for sure we will bring this value down to the next upcoming generations. In another situation, the change of the belief to a value can be explained through another experience of mine. Since I was a teenager, I have the belief that it is important to spend quality time with our family. We believed that when we spend time together, a lot of problems can be solved. For instance, if any of us have headache, or stressful due to a work or studies, we will mingle and have a close conversation or do some other activities with our family members and that eventually reduces the headache and stress. In other word, it can be said that we help each other to ease our difficulties. Therefore, I believed very much that spending time together with our family can make us cheerful and free from stress. This belief has changed to value where we hold to it tightly. We made sure to follow this value of sharing ears and shoulders, and helping one another in every situation. This also has led me and other family members to take this value up and control or change how we live our lives. Our life which is based on a personal code of values brings meaning, purpose, and direction to living. How the rule of law can be used as guide to moral choice Rules and regulations can be found in many places but when it comes to official rules and regulations they are referred as law. Law is generated in a society to control the behavior of people that constitute the society. Law is generally found in organizations, legislation and legal opinions. It is also known as a formal mechanism to control socialism. Law is very important and useful to establish and maintain social order. (Glanville Williams) Rules of law can be considered as the base for setting up a society and it helps in making positive changes to the ways of bringing up the society. When a person has the knowledge of law, they can understand public affairs better which is really important for establishment of a society. When law is studied, it will promote some understanding of social values. Thus, it makes the person to choose rules of law for a society by comparing the good effects and bad effects they may have on the society. This choice of rules will create good ethics for the society. All the members must follow the rules accordingly and that will eventually create a good social order. For an example, when the organization set a rule for its members on not to be harsh on the customers, the members should always keep that in mind and obey it all the time. If at all they disobey the rule, they may need to be out of the society or be sacked. Therefore, this rule can be a guide for people to be ethical in that society. They will make sure that they do not be harsh on others in order to maintain a good social order. Social order is considered as an organization or mechanism that exists with the enforcement of rules of laws. A person must learn to obey the rules that are set up for the organization or society and accept them in order to fit him or herself in that society. For most cases, social order is always pre-developed which means it is usually inherited by the older people of that society. They integrated cultures and personalities as a guide to develop the ideas and beliefs for the society which has changed into moral values. In addition to that, moral values shape a persons behaviour and it also manage the group activity within that society. If the established law or values are not followed by the members of a society, conflict may arise. Therefore an organization should always make sure that their members always follow the values practised in that organization in order to maintain smooth relationships and healthy environment. Summary Ethics is the formal study of moral standards and conduct. For this reason ethics is also known as moral philosophy. The study and evaluation of human conduct in the light of moral principles that humans have constructed for themselves or as the life guidelines and cultures that a particular society requires for its own members. We had discussed ethics in 3 subtopics which is norms, values and beliefs. In conclusion, first of all, norms are useful tool for the social behaviour of a person towards his daily activity and possess acceptable behaviours that are the unintended, unexpected result of individuals communications. For example, a system of norms specified what is satisfactory and what is not satisfactory in a society or group. Belief is defined as the mind-set of a person that intentions are true, and confidence in the fact or way of life of something. It is proof of a mental attitude of acceptance toward a proposition without the full intellectual evidence required to guarantee its truth. Beliefs have been well-known according to their level of certainty which is mistrust, an opinion, or a confidence. Belief becomes awareness only when the truth of a intention becomes obvious to the believer himself. Values can be concluded as the foundation of beliefs of the persons which guide and encourage their attitudes and belief. There are three main theories of values which humans can have favoured values, instrumental values and fundamental values. Each of it plays an important and unique role in our life in the development of moral standards and moral norm. Values are about belief and ideas of culture that are acceptable or not by a society. Besides that, rules of law that are chosen for an organization or society can be used as a guide to moral choice. When rules are to be followed by the members of the organization, a healthy environment and a good social order can be maintained. Rules that are formed in a society will ensure that all the members follow them that eventually become moral values in that organization. When the entire members act according to the moral values formed through the rules, an ethical organization can be formed.

Islam and Science Essay -- essays research papers fc

Islam and Science The 6th century Islamic empire inherited the scientific tradition of late antiquity. They preserved it, elaborated it, and finally, passed it to Europe (Science: The Islamic Legacy 3). At this early date, the Islamic dynasty of the Umayyads showed a great interest in science. The Dark Ages for Europeans were centuries of philosophical and scientific discovery and development for Muslim scholars. The Arabs at the time assimilated the ancient wisdom of Persia and the classical heritage of Greece, as well as adapting their own ways of thinking (Hitti 363). The Islamic ability to reconcile monotheism and science prooves to be a first time in human thought that theology, philosophy, and science were coordinated in a unified whole. Thus, their contribution was "one of the first magnitude, considering its effect upon scientific and philosophic thought and upon the theology of later times" (Hitti 580). One of the reasons for such development of science is probably due to God's commandment to explore the laws of nature. The idea is to admire all creations for its complexity and to cherish the creator for His ingenuity. Possibly holding to this belief, Islam's contributions to science had covered many roots of thought including mathematics, astronomy, medicine and philosophy. A common misconception today is that religion and science cannot coincide because they contradict each other. In the case of Islam, however, this statement has been disproven by verses in the Qur’an, hadeeth (prophetic tradition), and scientific discoveries by prominent Muslim philosophers. On the contrary, one of the traditions left by Prophet Muhammad teaches Muslims â€Å"to seek knowledge, though it be in China,† or not at arm’s length (Science in the Golden Age 8). Muslims are encouraged to use intelligence and observations to draw conclusions. Islamic civilizations, in fact, were the â€Å"inheritors of the scientific tradition of late antiquity. They preserved it, elaborated it, and, finally, passed it on to Europe† (Science: The Islamic Legacy 3). Much of Europe’s scientific resurrection can be attributed to the translations of over 400 Arab authors in the subjects of ophthalmology, surgery, pharmaceuticals, child care, and public health (Ts chanz 31). The fusion of both Eastern and Western ideas caused Islamic civilizations to thrive in a... ... were also religious scholars. Therefore, the evidence is clear that harmony exists between Islam and science. Works Cited Ahmed, Shabbir. Why I Am Not a Christian. Lauderhill: Galaxy Publications, 1999. Bucaille, Maurice. â€Å"The Qur’an and Modern Science.† The Origin of Man. Jan 2001. 9 Mar 2005. . Hitti, K.Phillip. History of the Arabs.New York: St. Martins Press, 1970 Holy Qur'an. Trans. M. H. Shakir. Elmhurst, NY: Tahrike Tarsile Qur'an, n.d.. Ibrahim, I.A. A Brief Illustrated Guide to Understanding Islam. 2nd ed. Houston: Darussalam, 1997. King, A. David. Islamic Mathematical Astronomy .London: Varioum Reprints, 1986. Lunde, Paul. â€Å"Science in the Golden Age.† Aramco World Magazine. 1986. Lunde, Paul. â€Å"Science: The Islamic Legacy.† Aramco World. 1986: 3-13. Osler, Sir William. The Evolution of Modern Medicine. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1921. Sirasi, G. Nancy. Avicenna in Renaissance Italy. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1987. Tschanz, David W. â€Å"The Arab Roots of European Medicine.† Aramco World. May/June 1997: 20-31. Zahoor, A. and Z. Haq. â€Å"Qur’an and Scientific Knowledge.† 9 March 2005. http://www.quran.org.uk/ieb_quran_scientific_knowledge.htm.